Virginity and Patriarchy: Constructions of Feminine Virtue
Early Fathers of Christianity produced a massive body of text concerning the importance of female virginity in order to legitimize and maintain patriarchal hierarchies.The byproduct of these texts was the creation of a belief system in which women could achieve a position close to God only through the preservation and cultivation of their virginity. In this construct the gendered female body is abhorrent and must be eliminated; it is through becoming a bride of Christ that women can be released from the intrinsic limitations of their sex. Problematic, and often misogynistic, notions of female virginity have persisted to the modern era due to the pervasiveness of patriarchal dominance. By creating a dichotomized view of femininity as simultaneously pure and evil, early church writings served to naturalize female shame and obscure female agency.
Before examining any early Christian documents with a gender critical approach, it is important for the reader to be aware of who is writing the text and why. Females are vastly underrepresented in early church musings. As continually noted by Vander Stichele and Penner, texts are written by those holding positions of power and authority. [1] Because of this, any text reviewed must be done so with the recognition that it is being written to promote a certain agenda and worldview. According to Castelli, “orthodoxy’s power derives from its own dogmatism and its claim to absolute truth; the vacillations of orthodox truth have over time have produced the approved bibliography and the filters through which information has passed.” [2] The role of the storyteller or mythmaker is pivotal to understanding and deconstructing the formation of female virginity ideals in early Christianity. Through the creation and maintenance of orthodoxy, ideas surrounding the sanctity of female virginity have become normalized. Due to the intertextuality of religious writings all work produced is informed by previous texts. It is important to keep in mind that texts produced in the early Christian world were personal interpretations and assumptions regarding the Christian message; “there is little in scripture to foster the exaltation of the virgin state”. [3] In the earliest years of Christianity an official canon was produced which was carefully constructed to espouse ideas that conformed to the goals of early church figures, who were almost entirely male. Works that fit the canon portrayed women as inherently less capable than men and served to establish a religious social order based in large part on the subordinance of women to men.It was important to church Fathers to uphold the social status quo and promote male dominance. Alice Schlegel explains some motivations for why fathers shield their daughters virginity; “they are protecting her from seduction, impregnation, and paternity claims on their child”. [4] In this case the powers at large in the early Christian church acted as fathers over all women of the faith, or family. This trope operates under the assumption that women are easily seduced and weak, able to be snatched away or impregnated at any time. Ideals of virginity serve to preserve women as children of the church, a social strata far below that of father.
The very first woman any reader of the Old Testament comes into contact with is Eve. According to Haines-Eitzen, Eve is simultaneously described in Genesis as“the mother of the living” and “the bringer of death.”[5] It is important to note the ways in which Christian femininity is defined by a constant interplay between good and evil, chaste or seductive. By creating this false dichotomy early church Fathers were able to manipulate depictions of female-ness according to their desired goals. As noted by Tibbetts Schulenburg, “although [patriarchal church Fathers] showered the highest praise on virgins who denied their sex, they viewed female nature as fragile, weak, and in general, as participating in the carnal...”[6] Because the female body is defined almost entirely by its sexuality, it is an incredible act of willpower and self control for a woman to uphold her virginity. As the early church understood it, the female body was naturally lacking, a sheer receptacle to be filled with whatever men saw fit.
At the crux of early Christian literature regarding female virginity are discussions of the body and bodily transformation. Assuming that women are innately driven by sex and temptation, the only way for a woman to truly to devote herself to God is to break free of her stifling body. The Life of Macrina features a very telling line about the title character in the opening of the text; “this person was a woman- if indeed she was a woman, for I am not sure it is right to refer to someone by her sex when she had transcended her sex”.[7] The pinnacle of virginity is to be so fully engaged and devoted to your purity that you are physically transformed and removed from the abhorrent female form. Another relevant example is The Passion of Perpetua, where through her virginity and religious devotion Perpetua takes on masculine attributes and diminishes her feminine hinderance. The story includes a scene of Perpetua taking on the form of a gladiator and engaging in active battle with the devil. Elliott elaborates on this theme; “the women who renounced their sexuality are described as being spiritually transformed into men, a clear promotion in the patriarchal world”. [8] It is through bodily transcendence that pious virgins are able to experience Christianity more fully. Church Fathers promoted this construct to diminish female sexuality and to compare virgins with angels.Various texts, including The Life of Macrina draw allusions between virgins and angels. To live a virginal life is to be as close to angelic as is possible. At the time of Macrina’s death she is transformed from her worldly body; “it was if some angel had providentially taken on human shape, an angel who had no connection or familiarity of life in the flesh, and for whom a state of incapability of feeling pain was perfectly natural for the flesh did not drag her towards physical passions”.[9] When the utmost level of holiness is reached, female virgins are figuratively raised from their earthly bodies and fully destroy any connection to their femininity. It is this ideal that should be strived for, and this was one reason many women decided to grasp onto their virginal states.
The goal of marriage in early Christianity was often to ensure female safety and maintain familial honor. Women who were virgins were able to join in a sort of matrimony with Christ, devoting themselves entirely to him. Castelli elaborates on this phenomena; “the notion of virginity as liberation from the exigencies of earthly marriage leads into the theme of celestial marriage with Christ”. [10] Women played very limited roles in their marriages in early Christianity, and it was far more rewarding and beneficial to submit to a life of marriage to Christ. In order to escape rape or kidnapping, Macrina’s mother resigns herself to marriage. Macrina herself is able to avoid marriage and declare herself fully to Christ. On her deathbed Macrina speaks to Christ as a lover or groom; “as the time of her departure approached it was if she could see more clearly the beauty of her Bridegroom and was hastening all the more towards her beloved”.[11] In marriage to Christ imagery of love and marriage are appropriate because virgins are devoid of the negativities of their sex. A life of virginity and chastity was considered a far more noble and impressive undertaking than a mere human marriage.
Constructions of virginity and ideal womanhood as set forth by Early Church Fathers has informed and influenced the topic even into the modern day. The multi-faceted and complex orthodoxy that has defined Christian virginity can be understood from only one angle or lense. Alternatively, a comprehensive understanding and deconstruction of virginity would require deep exploration into the myriad of components that define and create early Christian virginity.
Notes
[1] Vander Stichele, Caroline, and Todd C. Penner.Contextualizing gender in early Christian discourse thinking beyond Thecla. London: T & T Clark, 2009. Print.
[2] Castelli, Elizabeth. "Virginity and its Meaning for Women's Sexuality in Early Christianity." In A Feminist Companion to Patristic Literature, 72-100. London: T & T Clark, 2008. Page 62
[3] Elliott, Dyan. "A Match Made in Heaven: The Bride in the Early Church/ The Church Fathers and the Embodied Bride." In The Bride of Christ Goes to Hell: Metaphor and Embodiment in the Lives of Pious Women, 200-1500. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2012. 9-63. Print. Page 9.
[4] Schlegel, Alice. "Status, Property, And The Value On Virginity." American Ethnologist 18, no. 4 (1991): 719-734. (accessed November 20, 2013). Page 724.
[5] Haines-Eitzen, Kim. "Sinners and Saints, Silent and Submissive? The Textual/Sexual Transformation of Female Characters in the New Testament and Beyond." In The Gendered Palimpsest: Women, Writing, and Representation in Early Christianity. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. 69-93. Print. Page 72.
[6]“...as sexual, and thus incompatible with the spiritual world” (129).
Schulenburg, Jane Tibbetts. "At What Cost Virginity? Sanctity and the Heroics of Virginity.." In Forgetful of Their Sex: Female Sanctity and Society, ca. 500-1100, 127-175. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.
[7] White, Carolinne. "Life of Macrina." Lives of Roman Christian women. London: Penguin Books, 2010. 20-48. Print. Page 22.
[8] Elliot, 11
[9] Life of Macrina, 37
[10] Castelli, 80
[11] Life of Macrina, 37
Bal, Mieke. "Virginity: Towards a Feminist Philology." Dispositio 12, no. 30/32 (1987): 65-82. (accessed November 22, 2013).
Bal offers insight into virginity as a construct. The author explores the ways in which the sanctity of virginity has been maintained throughout Christian groups and how it is actively engaged and invoked. Attention is given to the ways in which men perpetuate and distinguish female virginity. Bal notes that virginity is constructed through specific gender related meanings in their cultural contexts. This is a useful paper because it elaborates on the way culture and setting influence understandings of constructs such as virginity.
Castelli, Elizabeth. "Virginity and its Meaning for Women's Sexuality in Early Christianity." In A Feminist Companion to Patristic Literature, 72-100. London: T & T Clark, 2008.
This chapter confronts the relationship between asceticism and female virginity, and how renouncing both gender and worldly possessions leads to a closer relationship with God. An important part of this essay is an examination of why so few women are mentioned in the canon of church literature and how this skews understanding of women in the early church. The authors make reference to Macrina, noting that she is only relevant because her brother was so important. The reader is reminded to critically, and through a gendered lense, examine all accounts that are read and considered for inclusion in any future papers.
Elliott, Dyan. "A Match Made in Heaven: The Bride in the Early Church/ The Church Fathers and the Embodied Bride." In The Bride of Christ Goes to Hell: Metaphor and Embodiment in the Lives of Pious Women, 200-1500. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2012. 9-63. Print.
There are two relevant chapters in this book, the first concerned with the role of brides in the early church. Elliott notes that the majority of information about virginity comes from sources outside of the Bible; “there is little in scripture to foster the exaltation of the virgin state”(9). Elliot makes mention of “becoming male”, a theme that has been constant throughout the course and is also relevant to themes surrounding virginity. Thecla and Perpetua are mentioned in the way they are masculine, also relevant to our course and a future paper. Tertullian is one of the key figures in the early Church; “the sexed body emerged as the benchmark of difference in his writings” (16). There is considerable time spent covering the comparison between female virgins and angels, showcasing virginity as the closest a human female could be to God. Elliot also brings up the role of virgins as in marriage relationships with Christ, an important component of the construction of early Christian virginity.
Haines-Eitzen, Kim. "Sinners and Saints, Silent and Submissive? The Textual/Sexual Transformation of Female Characters in the New Testament and Beyond." In The Gendered Palimpsest: Women, Writing, and Representation in Early Christianity. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. 69-93. Print.
This text examines the role of storytelling and myth making in the creation of the idealized Christian female. It begins with a comparison of Eve and the symbolism of snakes in literature, and how this notion of females as conniving and evil has permeated Christianity and been upheld by Church fathers. Contrasts are crucial to the formation of establishing what is right or wrong; through illuminating what is wrong, the author also reveals the correct way to act. A large portion of the chapter is devoted to a discussion of Mary, who we surprisingly did not talk much about in class. The author describes the factors contributing to early Christian conceptions of Jesus’s mother; “the stories were told in light of present circumstances and that the development of Marian devotion can be seen both in these retellings and also in the textual variants of a single text...” (83). This source covers the importance of critically examining texts and ascertaining more than just surface information.
Laporte, Jean. "The Virgins." In The role of women in early Christianity, 70-105. New York: E. Mellen Press, 1982.
This source was included for its sections about The Life of Macrina and comments about Tertullian. Macrina is an excellent example of the virtues of womanhood and virginity. While Macrina is an ascetic, detached from worldly desire, it is because she does not belong to her body and is in the realm of angels. Laporte makes specific note of the frailty of virgins; “she [a virgin] ought not to make numerous or unnecessary journeys, neither is it permissible for her to utter idle and random words; and as for abuse and flattery, she should not even know them by name” (74). There is a clear distinction between female ascetics, who, while also virgins, are often portrayed as strong and very capable of doing things for themselves, capable of taking long journeys. Virginity is thus not intrinsically linked to asceticism. This is the view expounded by Chrysostom. Passages by Chrysostom refer to the care and keeping of virgins and explain that they are to protected and nurtured, not going out into arenas and conquering beasts as Thecla did.
Schlegel, Alice. "Status, Property, And The Value On Virginity." American Ethnologist 18, no. 4 (1991): 719-734. (accessed November 20, 2013).
This article, while not strictly discussing early Christianity, provides insight into modern conceptions of virginity and how they have been informed by historical systems of wealth and patriarchy. It is crucial for patriarchal power systems to instill values of virginity as a means to control female daughters and ensure their familial honor is protected. Notions of shame and dishonor are intrinsically tied to notions of female virginity and purity. Virginity is thoroughly intertwined with cultural values and norms, and it is dictated by the forces that maintain control and power. In the case of the early church it was domineering male figures who built conceptions of virginity and chastity.
Schulenburg, Jane Tibbetts. "At What Cost Virginity? Sanctity and the Heroics of Virginity.." In Forgetful of Their Sex: Female Sanctity and Society, ca. 500-1100, 127-175. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.
In this chapter Schulenberg begins with a description of how the female body was interpreted in Early Christianity: “primarily carnal or bodily beings by nature” (127). In order to live a spiritual life of ideal Christianity, a women must protect her purity and chastity at all costs. She next discusses the Church Fathers (Tertullian, Jerome, Augustine, etc.) and the creation of a dichotomized view of women as both virtuous and conniving, virgin and whore simultaneously. The only way to avoid falling into the trap of this dual nature of femininity, females should completely give up their sexuality and remain virginal. The author brings up some interesting commentary regarding virginity and sexual assault. Schulenberg also broaches literature regarding the appropriateness of suicide as a response to threat of virginity. It reminded me a bit of the story of Macrina, whose mother decided to marry and give up any hopes of a saintly life in order to preserve her chastity.
Vander Stichele, Caroline, and Todd C. Penner.Contextualizing gender in early Christian discourse thinking beyond Thecla. London: T & T Clark, 2009. Print.
Vander Stichele and Penner provide background information that helps focus and inform readings of gendered religious texts. The authors stress the importance of examining texts through a critical lense. This means taking into account the world before, within, and beyond the text. In order to grasp the relevance of religious texts the reader must considered who is writing the text, where it is being written, who the audience is, and what goal the writing strides to achieve. A close reading of The Acts of Thecla provides information about the varied roles of female virgins and their incarnations, from powerful and athletic to dainty and fragile.
Winn, Robert E.. "The Church Of Virgins And Martyrs: Ecclesiastical Identity In The Sermons Of Eusebius Of Emesa."Journal of Early Christian Studies 11, no. 3 (2003): 309-338.(accessed November 22, 2013).
Winn explores Eusebius’ depiction of virginity and martyrdom, most notably in reference to the similarities between virgins and angels. It is Eusebius’ position that the vow taken by virgins to disregard earthly bodies and pleasures lifts them spiritually from the earth and closer to the realm of angels. Winn explicates the ways in which Eusebius’ messages were received and to whom they were directed. Ultimately Eusebius is more vocal about his belief in the connection between virgins and angels than any other speaker examined for this paper.
White, Carolinne. "Life of Macrina." Lives of Roman Christian women. London: Penguin Books, 2010. 20-48. Print.
The Life of Macrina describes the life, teachings, and death of the sister of Basil and Gregory, two crucial figures in the formation of the early church. From an extremely early age Macrina devoted her life to chastity and virtue, and encouraged her mother to also give up all her worldly belongings in favor of teaching and praying. As Macrina lays dying on a wooden block for a pillow she continues to spout philosophy. She is strengthened by God and is able to relay her final messages through her communication with him. Also of note in this story are the references made to Christ as a Bridegroom and Macrina as an angel.
Before examining any early Christian documents with a gender critical approach, it is important for the reader to be aware of who is writing the text and why. Females are vastly underrepresented in early church musings. As continually noted by Vander Stichele and Penner, texts are written by those holding positions of power and authority. [1] Because of this, any text reviewed must be done so with the recognition that it is being written to promote a certain agenda and worldview. According to Castelli, “orthodoxy’s power derives from its own dogmatism and its claim to absolute truth; the vacillations of orthodox truth have over time have produced the approved bibliography and the filters through which information has passed.” [2] The role of the storyteller or mythmaker is pivotal to understanding and deconstructing the formation of female virginity ideals in early Christianity. Through the creation and maintenance of orthodoxy, ideas surrounding the sanctity of female virginity have become normalized. Due to the intertextuality of religious writings all work produced is informed by previous texts. It is important to keep in mind that texts produced in the early Christian world were personal interpretations and assumptions regarding the Christian message; “there is little in scripture to foster the exaltation of the virgin state”. [3] In the earliest years of Christianity an official canon was produced which was carefully constructed to espouse ideas that conformed to the goals of early church figures, who were almost entirely male. Works that fit the canon portrayed women as inherently less capable than men and served to establish a religious social order based in large part on the subordinance of women to men.It was important to church Fathers to uphold the social status quo and promote male dominance. Alice Schlegel explains some motivations for why fathers shield their daughters virginity; “they are protecting her from seduction, impregnation, and paternity claims on their child”. [4] In this case the powers at large in the early Christian church acted as fathers over all women of the faith, or family. This trope operates under the assumption that women are easily seduced and weak, able to be snatched away or impregnated at any time. Ideals of virginity serve to preserve women as children of the church, a social strata far below that of father.
The very first woman any reader of the Old Testament comes into contact with is Eve. According to Haines-Eitzen, Eve is simultaneously described in Genesis as“the mother of the living” and “the bringer of death.”[5] It is important to note the ways in which Christian femininity is defined by a constant interplay between good and evil, chaste or seductive. By creating this false dichotomy early church Fathers were able to manipulate depictions of female-ness according to their desired goals. As noted by Tibbetts Schulenburg, “although [patriarchal church Fathers] showered the highest praise on virgins who denied their sex, they viewed female nature as fragile, weak, and in general, as participating in the carnal...”[6] Because the female body is defined almost entirely by its sexuality, it is an incredible act of willpower and self control for a woman to uphold her virginity. As the early church understood it, the female body was naturally lacking, a sheer receptacle to be filled with whatever men saw fit.
At the crux of early Christian literature regarding female virginity are discussions of the body and bodily transformation. Assuming that women are innately driven by sex and temptation, the only way for a woman to truly to devote herself to God is to break free of her stifling body. The Life of Macrina features a very telling line about the title character in the opening of the text; “this person was a woman- if indeed she was a woman, for I am not sure it is right to refer to someone by her sex when she had transcended her sex”.[7] The pinnacle of virginity is to be so fully engaged and devoted to your purity that you are physically transformed and removed from the abhorrent female form. Another relevant example is The Passion of Perpetua, where through her virginity and religious devotion Perpetua takes on masculine attributes and diminishes her feminine hinderance. The story includes a scene of Perpetua taking on the form of a gladiator and engaging in active battle with the devil. Elliott elaborates on this theme; “the women who renounced their sexuality are described as being spiritually transformed into men, a clear promotion in the patriarchal world”. [8] It is through bodily transcendence that pious virgins are able to experience Christianity more fully. Church Fathers promoted this construct to diminish female sexuality and to compare virgins with angels.Various texts, including The Life of Macrina draw allusions between virgins and angels. To live a virginal life is to be as close to angelic as is possible. At the time of Macrina’s death she is transformed from her worldly body; “it was if some angel had providentially taken on human shape, an angel who had no connection or familiarity of life in the flesh, and for whom a state of incapability of feeling pain was perfectly natural for the flesh did not drag her towards physical passions”.[9] When the utmost level of holiness is reached, female virgins are figuratively raised from their earthly bodies and fully destroy any connection to their femininity. It is this ideal that should be strived for, and this was one reason many women decided to grasp onto their virginal states.
The goal of marriage in early Christianity was often to ensure female safety and maintain familial honor. Women who were virgins were able to join in a sort of matrimony with Christ, devoting themselves entirely to him. Castelli elaborates on this phenomena; “the notion of virginity as liberation from the exigencies of earthly marriage leads into the theme of celestial marriage with Christ”. [10] Women played very limited roles in their marriages in early Christianity, and it was far more rewarding and beneficial to submit to a life of marriage to Christ. In order to escape rape or kidnapping, Macrina’s mother resigns herself to marriage. Macrina herself is able to avoid marriage and declare herself fully to Christ. On her deathbed Macrina speaks to Christ as a lover or groom; “as the time of her departure approached it was if she could see more clearly the beauty of her Bridegroom and was hastening all the more towards her beloved”.[11] In marriage to Christ imagery of love and marriage are appropriate because virgins are devoid of the negativities of their sex. A life of virginity and chastity was considered a far more noble and impressive undertaking than a mere human marriage.
Constructions of virginity and ideal womanhood as set forth by Early Church Fathers has informed and influenced the topic even into the modern day. The multi-faceted and complex orthodoxy that has defined Christian virginity can be understood from only one angle or lense. Alternatively, a comprehensive understanding and deconstruction of virginity would require deep exploration into the myriad of components that define and create early Christian virginity.
Notes
[1] Vander Stichele, Caroline, and Todd C. Penner.Contextualizing gender in early Christian discourse thinking beyond Thecla. London: T & T Clark, 2009. Print.
[2] Castelli, Elizabeth. "Virginity and its Meaning for Women's Sexuality in Early Christianity." In A Feminist Companion to Patristic Literature, 72-100. London: T & T Clark, 2008. Page 62
[3] Elliott, Dyan. "A Match Made in Heaven: The Bride in the Early Church/ The Church Fathers and the Embodied Bride." In The Bride of Christ Goes to Hell: Metaphor and Embodiment in the Lives of Pious Women, 200-1500. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2012. 9-63. Print. Page 9.
[4] Schlegel, Alice. "Status, Property, And The Value On Virginity." American Ethnologist 18, no. 4 (1991): 719-734. (accessed November 20, 2013). Page 724.
[5] Haines-Eitzen, Kim. "Sinners and Saints, Silent and Submissive? The Textual/Sexual Transformation of Female Characters in the New Testament and Beyond." In The Gendered Palimpsest: Women, Writing, and Representation in Early Christianity. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. 69-93. Print. Page 72.
[6]“...as sexual, and thus incompatible with the spiritual world” (129).
Schulenburg, Jane Tibbetts. "At What Cost Virginity? Sanctity and the Heroics of Virginity.." In Forgetful of Their Sex: Female Sanctity and Society, ca. 500-1100, 127-175. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.
[7] White, Carolinne. "Life of Macrina." Lives of Roman Christian women. London: Penguin Books, 2010. 20-48. Print. Page 22.
[8] Elliot, 11
[9] Life of Macrina, 37
[10] Castelli, 80
[11] Life of Macrina, 37
Bal, Mieke. "Virginity: Towards a Feminist Philology." Dispositio 12, no. 30/32 (1987): 65-82. (accessed November 22, 2013).
Bal offers insight into virginity as a construct. The author explores the ways in which the sanctity of virginity has been maintained throughout Christian groups and how it is actively engaged and invoked. Attention is given to the ways in which men perpetuate and distinguish female virginity. Bal notes that virginity is constructed through specific gender related meanings in their cultural contexts. This is a useful paper because it elaborates on the way culture and setting influence understandings of constructs such as virginity.
Castelli, Elizabeth. "Virginity and its Meaning for Women's Sexuality in Early Christianity." In A Feminist Companion to Patristic Literature, 72-100. London: T & T Clark, 2008.
This chapter confronts the relationship between asceticism and female virginity, and how renouncing both gender and worldly possessions leads to a closer relationship with God. An important part of this essay is an examination of why so few women are mentioned in the canon of church literature and how this skews understanding of women in the early church. The authors make reference to Macrina, noting that she is only relevant because her brother was so important. The reader is reminded to critically, and through a gendered lense, examine all accounts that are read and considered for inclusion in any future papers.
Elliott, Dyan. "A Match Made in Heaven: The Bride in the Early Church/ The Church Fathers and the Embodied Bride." In The Bride of Christ Goes to Hell: Metaphor and Embodiment in the Lives of Pious Women, 200-1500. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2012. 9-63. Print.
There are two relevant chapters in this book, the first concerned with the role of brides in the early church. Elliott notes that the majority of information about virginity comes from sources outside of the Bible; “there is little in scripture to foster the exaltation of the virgin state”(9). Elliot makes mention of “becoming male”, a theme that has been constant throughout the course and is also relevant to themes surrounding virginity. Thecla and Perpetua are mentioned in the way they are masculine, also relevant to our course and a future paper. Tertullian is one of the key figures in the early Church; “the sexed body emerged as the benchmark of difference in his writings” (16). There is considerable time spent covering the comparison between female virgins and angels, showcasing virginity as the closest a human female could be to God. Elliot also brings up the role of virgins as in marriage relationships with Christ, an important component of the construction of early Christian virginity.
Haines-Eitzen, Kim. "Sinners and Saints, Silent and Submissive? The Textual/Sexual Transformation of Female Characters in the New Testament and Beyond." In The Gendered Palimpsest: Women, Writing, and Representation in Early Christianity. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. 69-93. Print.
This text examines the role of storytelling and myth making in the creation of the idealized Christian female. It begins with a comparison of Eve and the symbolism of snakes in literature, and how this notion of females as conniving and evil has permeated Christianity and been upheld by Church fathers. Contrasts are crucial to the formation of establishing what is right or wrong; through illuminating what is wrong, the author also reveals the correct way to act. A large portion of the chapter is devoted to a discussion of Mary, who we surprisingly did not talk much about in class. The author describes the factors contributing to early Christian conceptions of Jesus’s mother; “the stories were told in light of present circumstances and that the development of Marian devotion can be seen both in these retellings and also in the textual variants of a single text...” (83). This source covers the importance of critically examining texts and ascertaining more than just surface information.
Laporte, Jean. "The Virgins." In The role of women in early Christianity, 70-105. New York: E. Mellen Press, 1982.
This source was included for its sections about The Life of Macrina and comments about Tertullian. Macrina is an excellent example of the virtues of womanhood and virginity. While Macrina is an ascetic, detached from worldly desire, it is because she does not belong to her body and is in the realm of angels. Laporte makes specific note of the frailty of virgins; “she [a virgin] ought not to make numerous or unnecessary journeys, neither is it permissible for her to utter idle and random words; and as for abuse and flattery, she should not even know them by name” (74). There is a clear distinction between female ascetics, who, while also virgins, are often portrayed as strong and very capable of doing things for themselves, capable of taking long journeys. Virginity is thus not intrinsically linked to asceticism. This is the view expounded by Chrysostom. Passages by Chrysostom refer to the care and keeping of virgins and explain that they are to protected and nurtured, not going out into arenas and conquering beasts as Thecla did.
Schlegel, Alice. "Status, Property, And The Value On Virginity." American Ethnologist 18, no. 4 (1991): 719-734. (accessed November 20, 2013).
This article, while not strictly discussing early Christianity, provides insight into modern conceptions of virginity and how they have been informed by historical systems of wealth and patriarchy. It is crucial for patriarchal power systems to instill values of virginity as a means to control female daughters and ensure their familial honor is protected. Notions of shame and dishonor are intrinsically tied to notions of female virginity and purity. Virginity is thoroughly intertwined with cultural values and norms, and it is dictated by the forces that maintain control and power. In the case of the early church it was domineering male figures who built conceptions of virginity and chastity.
Schulenburg, Jane Tibbetts. "At What Cost Virginity? Sanctity and the Heroics of Virginity.." In Forgetful of Their Sex: Female Sanctity and Society, ca. 500-1100, 127-175. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.
In this chapter Schulenberg begins with a description of how the female body was interpreted in Early Christianity: “primarily carnal or bodily beings by nature” (127). In order to live a spiritual life of ideal Christianity, a women must protect her purity and chastity at all costs. She next discusses the Church Fathers (Tertullian, Jerome, Augustine, etc.) and the creation of a dichotomized view of women as both virtuous and conniving, virgin and whore simultaneously. The only way to avoid falling into the trap of this dual nature of femininity, females should completely give up their sexuality and remain virginal. The author brings up some interesting commentary regarding virginity and sexual assault. Schulenberg also broaches literature regarding the appropriateness of suicide as a response to threat of virginity. It reminded me a bit of the story of Macrina, whose mother decided to marry and give up any hopes of a saintly life in order to preserve her chastity.
Vander Stichele, Caroline, and Todd C. Penner.Contextualizing gender in early Christian discourse thinking beyond Thecla. London: T & T Clark, 2009. Print.
Vander Stichele and Penner provide background information that helps focus and inform readings of gendered religious texts. The authors stress the importance of examining texts through a critical lense. This means taking into account the world before, within, and beyond the text. In order to grasp the relevance of religious texts the reader must considered who is writing the text, where it is being written, who the audience is, and what goal the writing strides to achieve. A close reading of The Acts of Thecla provides information about the varied roles of female virgins and their incarnations, from powerful and athletic to dainty and fragile.
Winn, Robert E.. "The Church Of Virgins And Martyrs: Ecclesiastical Identity In The Sermons Of Eusebius Of Emesa."Journal of Early Christian Studies 11, no. 3 (2003): 309-338.(accessed November 22, 2013).
Winn explores Eusebius’ depiction of virginity and martyrdom, most notably in reference to the similarities between virgins and angels. It is Eusebius’ position that the vow taken by virgins to disregard earthly bodies and pleasures lifts them spiritually from the earth and closer to the realm of angels. Winn explicates the ways in which Eusebius’ messages were received and to whom they were directed. Ultimately Eusebius is more vocal about his belief in the connection between virgins and angels than any other speaker examined for this paper.
White, Carolinne. "Life of Macrina." Lives of Roman Christian women. London: Penguin Books, 2010. 20-48. Print.
The Life of Macrina describes the life, teachings, and death of the sister of Basil and Gregory, two crucial figures in the formation of the early church. From an extremely early age Macrina devoted her life to chastity and virtue, and encouraged her mother to also give up all her worldly belongings in favor of teaching and praying. As Macrina lays dying on a wooden block for a pillow she continues to spout philosophy. She is strengthened by God and is able to relay her final messages through her communication with him. Also of note in this story are the references made to Christ as a Bridegroom and Macrina as an angel.