Jesus' Masculinity in Contemporary Visual Art Forms
In the various mediums of contemporary visual art, Jesus’ gender has been presented and interpreted in differing ways depending on the ideology and message the artist has wanted to project. The forms of visual art discussed include those of painting/drawing, digital design, theater, and filmmaking. The form of Jesus that has been considered ‘traditional’ is the masculine leader who has self-control, oratory power, and whose closest circle includes heterosexual male companions. This masculine identity is also often associated with ethnicity as a hegemonic structure. A masculine portrait is certainly not the only one that has been disseminated, however. There many artists whose unconventional representations of Jesus as feminine, gay, or of non-white ethnicity have received a disproportionate amount of negative feedback from various organizations and individuals. The backlash from these renderings of Jesus is important to consider when analyzing the pre-made popular conception of the Christ of a contemporary American population.
Images of Jesus are present virtually everywhere in American culture. There are multitudes of different ways in which he is portrayed, on billboards, in church windows, in magazines, department stores, t-shirts, coffee mugs, and the list is virtually endless. The artistic representations can now vary as widely as the matter in which they are printed upon. Stephen Prothero documents how the image of Jesus has translated into a popular culture icon in his book American Jesus: How the Son of Man Became a National Icon. He posits that rather than there being an objective ideal of Jesus’ physical form, Christ images have generally been manipulated to reflect the contemporary culture within which they are situated. These are physical representations of what is called “the world in front of the text,” as the images are made through a lens of interpretation based on the creator’s biases and assumptions. Just as the famous “honk if you love Jesus” bumper stickers were created by a counter-culture subgroup which faithfully identified with the Christian faith. In using their context as ‘counter-culture’, they created images that would be disseminated to a wider, namely younger, audience (Prothero 2003). In the following project, the contemporary results of the popularization of a gendered Jesus in visual art form will be discussed.
While many visual art forms such as painting and sculpture have been devoted to Christ’s masculinity, there generally is no full consensus on gendered portrayals of Jesus. While many have argued that contemporary images of Jesus such as Warner Sallman’s “Head of Christ” show a masculine Jesus, with his intently gazing eyes and strong chin, not all agree. There are some who see this Christ as being too gentle, clean, and soft. He therefore seems feminine to some on-lookers. This same artist created a series of very well-known images of Jesus, many depicting the relationship between Jesus and younger men. These paintings have been interpreted in light of mentorship (evocative of father-son) relationships by many, showing Jesus’ masculinity as a leader and father-figure. However, some have also objected to these works and their potential to be viewed as displaying homoerotic relationships between the two (Morgan 1996). This evidences how the world in front of the text, or the viewers’ own biases, can lead to differing interpretations of an artist’s creation. If one is biased to see a masculine Jesus, they may pick out the more masculine features of an ambiguous work. If a person harbors homophobia, they may select the features of which they most fear – those representing homoerotic relationships. Another highly popular portrait of Jesus receives the same criticisms. This work is referred to as the “Sacred Heart of Jesus,” and generally depicts Jesus in a serene, gentle manner, with his heart visibly exposed. Though this may have been meant only to show the loving side of Jesus, it has been denigrated as a “sissified” or effeminate portrait (Samson 2012). Again, this shows how viewers can have widely differing opinions on the same work of religious art, as what is represented carries so much moral weight.
Images of Jesus are present virtually everywhere in American culture. There are multitudes of different ways in which he is portrayed, on billboards, in church windows, in magazines, department stores, t-shirts, coffee mugs, and the list is virtually endless. The artistic representations can now vary as widely as the matter in which they are printed upon. Stephen Prothero documents how the image of Jesus has translated into a popular culture icon in his book American Jesus: How the Son of Man Became a National Icon. He posits that rather than there being an objective ideal of Jesus’ physical form, Christ images have generally been manipulated to reflect the contemporary culture within which they are situated. These are physical representations of what is called “the world in front of the text,” as the images are made through a lens of interpretation based on the creator’s biases and assumptions. Just as the famous “honk if you love Jesus” bumper stickers were created by a counter-culture subgroup which faithfully identified with the Christian faith. In using their context as ‘counter-culture’, they created images that would be disseminated to a wider, namely younger, audience (Prothero 2003). In the following project, the contemporary results of the popularization of a gendered Jesus in visual art form will be discussed.
While many visual art forms such as painting and sculpture have been devoted to Christ’s masculinity, there generally is no full consensus on gendered portrayals of Jesus. While many have argued that contemporary images of Jesus such as Warner Sallman’s “Head of Christ” show a masculine Jesus, with his intently gazing eyes and strong chin, not all agree. There are some who see this Christ as being too gentle, clean, and soft. He therefore seems feminine to some on-lookers. This same artist created a series of very well-known images of Jesus, many depicting the relationship between Jesus and younger men. These paintings have been interpreted in light of mentorship (evocative of father-son) relationships by many, showing Jesus’ masculinity as a leader and father-figure. However, some have also objected to these works and their potential to be viewed as displaying homoerotic relationships between the two (Morgan 1996). This evidences how the world in front of the text, or the viewers’ own biases, can lead to differing interpretations of an artist’s creation. If one is biased to see a masculine Jesus, they may pick out the more masculine features of an ambiguous work. If a person harbors homophobia, they may select the features of which they most fear – those representing homoerotic relationships. Another highly popular portrait of Jesus receives the same criticisms. This work is referred to as the “Sacred Heart of Jesus,” and generally depicts Jesus in a serene, gentle manner, with his heart visibly exposed. Though this may have been meant only to show the loving side of Jesus, it has been denigrated as a “sissified” or effeminate portrait (Samson 2012). Again, this shows how viewers can have widely differing opinions on the same work of religious art, as what is represented carries so much moral weight.
Visual arts have also produced some more obviously transgressive works, such as those depicting Christ in feminine form. Since the 1970’s, there has been a large increase in the number of artistic renderings of female Christ. Scholars believe that while these works may not necessarily have been intended to present the historical Jesus of Nazareth as female, they make important contributions to the understanding of the story of the suffering of Christ. Arguably four of the most famous female representations of Christ include “Christa” (1974), “Crucified Woman” (1996), “Christine on the Cross” (1984), and “Bosnian Christa” (1993), which are all naked female figures on a cross. These artistic works have been subject to a great deal of resistance and backlash, as the concept of the feminine Jesus is (to some) much more transgressive than ethnic versions of Jesus. This is challenging to religious authority structures, as a great deal of institutionalized sexism within Christianity has been legitimized by the argument that Jesus was male. If people were to start believing in a female Christ, the power structure would have nothing left to stand upon. There is also the threat of open female sexuality in these images. Historically, female sexuality has been repressed by the Christian tradition, with images of the honorable women (such as Mary) being fully covered and completely lacking anything sexual. The openness of female sexuality that these women on the cross represent is not something that translates well into the Christian tradition. The association of Christ’s image with a feminine one is fairly offensive to some upon first glance, but what is perhaps more disturbing to a conservative viewer is that the femaleness is just so noticeable (Clauge 2005).
These transgressive representations of Jesus include that of a gay Christ. Specifically in 1997, a play called “Corpus Christi” was written portraying Jesus and his twelve disciples, all of whom identify strongly as gay. Even before this play debuted, it received an incredible amount of backlash from the Christian community. Many people found the overt association of Jesus with homosexuality extremely offensive, even though he does not engage in any sexual behavior aside from a kiss. Though the play itself did not actually have a highly transgressive plotline (other than the obvious fact that the characters were gay), the reaction from its opponents is highly informative of how the American public identifies its Jesus. Even though Jesus is generally supposed to be without sexuality, the offense taken at the suggestion of a gay Jesus shows that the American public definitely assumes that he is heterosexual anyway. As the American public associates Jesus’ heterosexuality with his masculinity in this case, any effort to subvert the idea of his orientation might engender his femininity. This undermines the power and authority of Christ, and as such, poses a huge threat to the rigid conception of Jesus as it exists now for the most conservative (Fish 2009). The live acting of Jesus’ behavior also seems to amplify the reaction of audiences to his gendering.
As long as Jesus films have existed, there has been a strong tendency toward gendering this subject as hyper-masculine. The history of Jesus films dates to 1897 in France with La Vie et la Passion de Jesus-Christ, a silent film. Since then, a great deal of religious cinema has perpetuated Jesus’ masculinity. Though these films may not present the stereotypical ‘Hollywood masculinity’ with tanned arms and bulging muscles, they present a behavioral display that is highly congruent with that presented in the New Testament. The Jesus films generally portray him as a persuasive and powerful orator, whose reason and argumentation overpower those of his feminized foes (Gilmour 2005). The same technique is used by the writers of the Gospels in presenting Jesus as an example of the Greco-Roman ideal masculinity: a man who wins arguments.
The Jesus of these contemporary films is also a master of self-control. He is generally shown as either enduring psychic or physical torture with stoicism. When he does consort with women, he takes power over them in conversation and argumentation. This is exemplified in many representations of the conversions of the prostitute Mary Magdalene. Magdalene’s femininity is emphasized in her pre-conversion state with copious amounts of jewelry, makeup, and other finery. She is sometimes even shown as tempting Jesus sexually, showing her feminine lack of control of sexual desire. Nevertheless, Jesus as a masculine figure of self-discipline refuses. Further, he persuades her to shed her previous life of sin and follow his message. Even once she is a follower, there is limited interaction between these two in the majority of Jesus films. When they do interact, her voice is generally removed, even though explicitly Jesus makes proto-feminist statements about her equality. Other foils to Jesus’ gender also display his masculinity by contrast. Satan is often portrayed in a feminized light in these films. At times, Satan is even played by an actress, despite the Bible’s common use of the “he” pronoun in reference to this figure. Satan, like Magdalene, is a tempter whom Jesus resists. The Devil also may be shown to lose emotional control in contrast to Jesus’ composure (Eschrich 2011). One film in particular displays many of these elements in a singular story line.
These transgressive representations of Jesus include that of a gay Christ. Specifically in 1997, a play called “Corpus Christi” was written portraying Jesus and his twelve disciples, all of whom identify strongly as gay. Even before this play debuted, it received an incredible amount of backlash from the Christian community. Many people found the overt association of Jesus with homosexuality extremely offensive, even though he does not engage in any sexual behavior aside from a kiss. Though the play itself did not actually have a highly transgressive plotline (other than the obvious fact that the characters were gay), the reaction from its opponents is highly informative of how the American public identifies its Jesus. Even though Jesus is generally supposed to be without sexuality, the offense taken at the suggestion of a gay Jesus shows that the American public definitely assumes that he is heterosexual anyway. As the American public associates Jesus’ heterosexuality with his masculinity in this case, any effort to subvert the idea of his orientation might engender his femininity. This undermines the power and authority of Christ, and as such, poses a huge threat to the rigid conception of Jesus as it exists now for the most conservative (Fish 2009). The live acting of Jesus’ behavior also seems to amplify the reaction of audiences to his gendering.
As long as Jesus films have existed, there has been a strong tendency toward gendering this subject as hyper-masculine. The history of Jesus films dates to 1897 in France with La Vie et la Passion de Jesus-Christ, a silent film. Since then, a great deal of religious cinema has perpetuated Jesus’ masculinity. Though these films may not present the stereotypical ‘Hollywood masculinity’ with tanned arms and bulging muscles, they present a behavioral display that is highly congruent with that presented in the New Testament. The Jesus films generally portray him as a persuasive and powerful orator, whose reason and argumentation overpower those of his feminized foes (Gilmour 2005). The same technique is used by the writers of the Gospels in presenting Jesus as an example of the Greco-Roman ideal masculinity: a man who wins arguments.
The Jesus of these contemporary films is also a master of self-control. He is generally shown as either enduring psychic or physical torture with stoicism. When he does consort with women, he takes power over them in conversation and argumentation. This is exemplified in many representations of the conversions of the prostitute Mary Magdalene. Magdalene’s femininity is emphasized in her pre-conversion state with copious amounts of jewelry, makeup, and other finery. She is sometimes even shown as tempting Jesus sexually, showing her feminine lack of control of sexual desire. Nevertheless, Jesus as a masculine figure of self-discipline refuses. Further, he persuades her to shed her previous life of sin and follow his message. Even once she is a follower, there is limited interaction between these two in the majority of Jesus films. When they do interact, her voice is generally removed, even though explicitly Jesus makes proto-feminist statements about her equality. Other foils to Jesus’ gender also display his masculinity by contrast. Satan is often portrayed in a feminized light in these films. At times, Satan is even played by an actress, despite the Bible’s common use of the “he” pronoun in reference to this figure. Satan, like Magdalene, is a tempter whom Jesus resists. The Devil also may be shown to lose emotional control in contrast to Jesus’ composure (Eschrich 2011). One film in particular displays many of these elements in a singular story line.
This particular film, Mel Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ, has received a wide array of reviews from film critics and Christians alike. In simple terms, it is extremely controversial. This film, released in 2004 and using Aramaic and Latin for greater ‘authenticity’ has generally been discussed for its vivid depiction of extreme violence. Many Christians are attracted to this film because of said violence, asserting that this represents the real suffering the occurred. However, scholars have suggested that this graphic display also genders Jesus. The greater the violence, the greater the suffering perceived - the greater the suffering, the greater endurance - the greater the endurance, the more manly the man. The violence of Gibson’s Jesus shows that he is a masculine God, who displays little to no emotion or signs of suffering during the horrible and bloody torture which he (and the audience) are subjected to (Price 2006). Scholars also point to this films for the casting of Jesus’ white ethnicity as compared to his ‘ethnic’ foes. Caiaphas is stereotypically Jewish in this film, with a long beard and hooked nose, while Jesus is light-skinned and amber-eyed. Pilate, on the other hand, is also quite white. This shows the ethnic-gendered intersection with the hegemonic structure of white power in this film. While Rome and Jesus have power (albeit different kinds), the Jews are the ones defeated at conclusion (BTM). However even this interpretation is not stable across individuals, though it has found a large amount of agreement in scholarship on the topic. Some scholars suggest that violence inflicted upon Gibson’s Jesus serves to make him more submissive, and therefore more feminine (Maddox 2008). This again displays the multiplicity of messages that can be gleaned from these works depending on biases in viewing.
Jesus’ gender in film is not always straightforward, either. The Jesus in the film The Robe has been interpreted to have an unstable gender identity and role. While at times playing the role of a masculinized competitor or leader, he will at times switch to that of a woman. Some scholars argue that the Jesus in this film is generally not masculinized. While he still represents a patriarchal figure and has power as the Son of God, he is perhaps more passive than some of the other characters (Hark 2013). Other transgressive portraits of Jesus in film include those of Jesus of non-white ethnicity, such as that of the film The Son of Man. This movie is set in South Africa, with an entirely black cast. This Jesus is neither a submissive nor aggressive one. This is a peaceful revolutionary Christ. Jesus as a non-violent counter-culturist is a common theme in several more recent films. This Jesus may still be masculine in his abilities to captivate an audience, persuade, and gather followers. However, he is not gendered with overt displays of masculinity (Gilmour 2009). This Jesus is perhaps one of the more complex portrayals, though each gendering has a complex set of interpretations.
Jesus has become a popular figure in American culture, as evidenced through visual art forms such as film, sculpture, paintings, and digital art. Jesus as a stoic masculine figure is no longer the only interpretation available, however. There are many portrayals of Jesus in existence that serve to subvert this norm. Jesus as feminine, gay, peaceful, and non-white challenges ideals that have been created by gendered power structures. These forms of art provide medium for expression of an artist’s conception of Jesus’ gender, but they also are a litmus test for the viewer’s own notions. Their value lies in the fact that they challenge people’s preconceived ideas.
Jesus’ gender in film is not always straightforward, either. The Jesus in the film The Robe has been interpreted to have an unstable gender identity and role. While at times playing the role of a masculinized competitor or leader, he will at times switch to that of a woman. Some scholars argue that the Jesus in this film is generally not masculinized. While he still represents a patriarchal figure and has power as the Son of God, he is perhaps more passive than some of the other characters (Hark 2013). Other transgressive portraits of Jesus in film include those of Jesus of non-white ethnicity, such as that of the film The Son of Man. This movie is set in South Africa, with an entirely black cast. This Jesus is neither a submissive nor aggressive one. This is a peaceful revolutionary Christ. Jesus as a non-violent counter-culturist is a common theme in several more recent films. This Jesus may still be masculine in his abilities to captivate an audience, persuade, and gather followers. However, he is not gendered with overt displays of masculinity (Gilmour 2009). This Jesus is perhaps one of the more complex portrayals, though each gendering has a complex set of interpretations.
Jesus has become a popular figure in American culture, as evidenced through visual art forms such as film, sculpture, paintings, and digital art. Jesus as a stoic masculine figure is no longer the only interpretation available, however. There are many portrayals of Jesus in existence that serve to subvert this norm. Jesus as feminine, gay, peaceful, and non-white challenges ideals that have been created by gendered power structures. These forms of art provide medium for expression of an artist’s conception of Jesus’ gender, but they also are a litmus test for the viewer’s own notions. Their value lies in the fact that they challenge people’s preconceived ideas.
Work Titled "Yo Mama's Last Supper"
The Feminine Satan in The Passion of the Christ
Annotated Bibliography
Clague, Julie. “The Christa: Symbolizing My Humanity and My Pain.” Feminist Theology 14, no. 1 (2005): 83-108.
Clague addresses several of the female representations of Christ on the cross that have received a considerable amount of attention in the contemporary era. These art works include: Christa (1974), Crucified Woman (1996), Christine on the Cross (1984), and Bosnian Christa (1993). These feminine crucifixes have received a great deal of controversial review in the years since they debuted. Generally, these works were created to represent the suffering of a particular group (if not all) of women, and show this suffering in relation to the sacrifice of Jesus for humanity in the Christian tradition. However, the reaction they have received from the general public as well as religious institutions shows how much is invested in Jesus’ masculinity. When that masculinity is substituted for femininity, people have highly adverse responses. The threat that is also posed by these symbols is their blatant female sexuality. The author posits that this is simply because all female sexuality has been removed from venerable female figures in the Christian tradition, such as Mary. The male Jesus on the cross is not sexualized perhaps because of the constant use of this symbol for centuries in art – it is possible that the viewer and the world in general are conditioned to view him as gendered, but not sexual.
Eschrich, Joey. “’Behold the Man!’: Constructing the Masculinity of Jesus of Nazareth in Mainstream American Film, 1961-2004.” Men and Masculinities 14, no. 5 (May 2011): 520-541. Accessed November 29, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1097184X11409361.
This is a discussion of Jesus is portrayed in contemporary (post World War II) films of which he is the primary subject. This article presents a masculine portrayal of Jesus, who asserts his masculinity through binary interactions with other characters. Feminine foils for Jesus include Mary Magdalene, Caiaphas, and Satan. Mary Magdalene is shown as the converted prostitute, who is the image of feminine sexuality and temptation. Jesus, being a paragon of self-control, resists this temptation and instead persuades her to shed her previous life of sin. Caiaphas also loses his emotional control, namely after the death of Christ. This feminine display of tears shows his subordination to Jesus, the masculine ideal. Satan is, at times, even played by a woman. Again temptation by Satan mimics the Fall of Man, while Jesus has strength to resist. While Jesus is generally played by a white male, often antagonists such as Caiaphas are more obviously ethnic. This casting mimics a power structure that places whites above all other ethnicities, according to the author. The death of Jesus then heralds the demise of his feminine, ethnic foes.
Fish, Thomas. “Demanding the Divine: Terrence McNally’s Gay Passion Play CORPUS CHRISTI.” Ecumenica 2, no. 2 (Fall 2009): 29-40.
Terrence McNally’s play Corpus Christi was met with an extreme amount of hostility from conservative religious organizations, as it depicted a gay Christ figure with gay apostles. Though this play did not arguably otherwise have any radical messages about the nature of Jesus’ life, just the portrayal of gay characters incited widespread criticism. The publicity about a gay Jesus play nearly overshadowed the plot of the actual play itself. The reaction of the public to this casting of Jesus is telling concerning the ideas that many already hold about Jesus’ gender and sexuality. Though this Christ is firmly committed to a gay identity in the play, he does not truly act upon this orientation in any real sexual way. The backlash from the public shows how just the identification of Christ with homosexuality (and identification of homosexuality as less than masculine) indicates that Christians are highly committed to a masculine Jesus. This gendering even persists although Jesus is painted as a non-sexual person.
Gilmour, Peter. “Text and Context: The Passion of the Christ and Other Jesus Films.” Religious Education 100, no.3 (Summer 2005): 311-325.
In this article, the author presents several lenses through which to critique Jesus films like Mel Gibson’s 2004 film The Passion of the Christ (though specifically focusing on this one in particular). The author dissects the movie in terms of its narrative theology and in the context of other Jesus films throughout the years. Gibson’s Passion is based upon both scriptural and non-scriptural sources of the life, death, and resurrection of the Christ. In the director’s interpretation, Jesus of Nazareth is more divine than human. The author indicates this as a flaw in the narrative theology of Gibson’s film. In relation to other Jesus films, the story is presented with an overwhelming emphasis on the violence of Jesus’ torture and execution. This, according to Gilmour, makes it too difficult for the audience to form a strong connection with the film. Though scholarly dissection of the work is important in its placement in religious education systems, Gilmour asserts that the film’s impact on the contemporary audience is for the public to decide – as Jesus is a figure that belongs to the public.
Gilmour, Peter. “The Film Son of Man: An Artistic Revelation of Jesus the Christ.” The Journal of Adult Theological Education 6, no. 2 (2009): 153-163.
Peter Gilmour dissects the 2006 film Son of Man. This film, set in South Africa, and shot with an entirely black cast, depicts Jesus in a somewhat similar but somewhat different way than other Jesus films. This film, set in the contemporary era, focuses on a non-violent yet revolutionary portrayal of Jesus. This Jesus, while having the power to perform miracles and captivate an audience, is more peaceful than the Jesus of Gibson’s Passion of the Christ, according to the author. There is no specific focus on retribution, and instead those who follow are offered reconciliation in their conversion. This portrait of Jesus also challenges the common portrayal of Jesus as reinforcing a white, middle-class norm for Christianity. This Jesus is one who transgresses norms of power and control found even in the contemporary context that has become accustomed to his traditional message.
Hark, Ina Rae. “Tortured Masculinity: Gendering Jesus in The Robe.” Quarterly Review of Film and Video 18, no. 2 (June 2009): 117-128. Accessed November 29, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10509200109361518.
The author believes that representations of Jesus’ gender in film have not conformed to a masculine archetype that has pervaded Hollywood in the contemporary era. The film The Robe specifically seems to obscure Jesus’ gender. In this movie, Jesus’ gender role is constantly in flux, at times playing the role of a woman, at times that of a man. This Jesus does not have the usual trappings of Hollywood masculinity – tanned, strong arms, physical presence. However, Christ is still a patriarchal figure. There are some vestiges of masculinity that pervade his character, though they are not a traditionally American version of masculinity.
Maddox, Kristy. “Playing the Victim: Violence, Suffering, and Feminine Submission in The Passion of the Christ.” Journal of Media and Religion 7 (2008): 150-169.
Maddox argues a fairly unconventional point in interpreting Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ film (2004). She posits that Jesus’ conduct in the film is feminine, as he submits to the Roman authorities and is subjected to horrific torture because of it. The overt violence in the film is central in demonstrating the submissiveness of Christ. Because the violence is so intense, it throws into greater relief the suffering of Jesus. As he suffers more, he endures more. Therefore, his lack of rebellion against the gruesome physical torture genders him feminine. Though he could have tried to escape something so terrible, he instead takes it. The graphic nature of the violence also makes the viewer feel a greater connection to the subject of the torture, Jesus. As his torture becomes more real and more painful, so does the audience’s. This also perpetuates the ideal of the follower becoming submissive as a result of Jesus’ suffering. It makes the suffering a physical experience for the audience also, and as such, it is intended to instill submission and awe.
Morgan, David. “The Masculinity of Jesus in Popular Religious Art.” In Men’s Bodies, Men’s Gods: Male Identity in a (Post-) Christian Culture, edited by Bjorn Krondorfer, 251-266. New York: New York University Press, 1996.
In this chapter, Morgan examines how popular religious art such as Warner Sallman’s portrayals of Jesus have been interpreted. One of Sallman’s more famous renditions of Jesus of Nazareth is the “Head of Christ,” which has been widely disseminated in the United States. This Jesus has been both admired for being a strong, masculine figure, and criticized for being too feminine. The author probes these opinions, as to why they might be interpreted in either light. It seems that the bias of the viewer tends to shape interpretation, so that things such as homophobia may skew a person’s conception of an art work.
Price, Stephen. “Beholding Bloody Sacrifice in The Passion of the Christ.” Film Quarterly 59, no. 4 (Summer 2006): 11-22.
Mel Gibson’s film The Passion of the Christ (2004) is mostly devoted to recreating Jesus of Nazareth’s torture and death by crucifixion. The movie contains several scenes, one extremely lengthy, of explicitly violent torture. The author argues that this excessive violence and cinematic ‘realism’ are used to amplify the message of the Christ’s suffering. In doing this, Jesus, who masters the pain and his torturers, endures in a stoic and masculine manner. His behavior while enduring the physical pain displays his self-control and superiority. In using shocking amounts of violence, Gibson not only engages Christian audiences in ‘realism’, but also displays Jesus as the prototype of masculinity.
Prothero, Stephen. American Jesus: How the Son of God Became a National Icon. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2003.
Prothero documents how Jesus came to be a figure in popular culture in the United States. Particularly of interest to this project is how the Jesus image came to be part of popular culture and how cultural values have shaped the image of Christ. The “Jesus freaks” were a group of people who were part of the counter-culture movement, while also being devoted to Christianity. These people’s context of counter-culture informed their representations of Christ, and as such, they created art that was appealing to a wider audience. These creations led the way for much of the popular Jesus art now – whether it be blockbuster films, billboards, or bumper stickers. This also shows how a lens of culture informs how Jesus is portrayed. In American culture, the prototype of masculinity – stoic and strong – has been applied to Christ in many popular art forms.
Samson, Judith. “Reading Images of Christ: Masculinity and Homosexuality as Sites of Struggle in Popular Religious Images of Jesus.” Religion and Gender 2, no. 2 (2012): 280-304.
The Sacred Heart of Jesus is a very popular image that depicts a gentle Christ with his heart exposed. This image has been the subject of a surprising amount of controversy, as many people see this Jesus as being too sensitive and feminine. These interpretations have also given way to interpreting this as a homosexual Christ. While this was not the intention of the artist, this meaning has been gleaned due to the context in which it is being viewed. The author suggests that this image is more controversial now than those made two centuries ago due to a solidifying of boundaries between friends/partners and masculine/feminine in the context of Jesus art. This also may be due to biases and fears on the part of the viewer. Samson explains that audiences fear seeing what they may fear within themselves – so noticing a certain homoeroticism may display repressed homosexuality and homophobia in fundamentalist audiences. Also, internalized gender roles and expectations may lead to the objections to a deficit of masculinity within portrayals of Christ.
Clague addresses several of the female representations of Christ on the cross that have received a considerable amount of attention in the contemporary era. These art works include: Christa (1974), Crucified Woman (1996), Christine on the Cross (1984), and Bosnian Christa (1993). These feminine crucifixes have received a great deal of controversial review in the years since they debuted. Generally, these works were created to represent the suffering of a particular group (if not all) of women, and show this suffering in relation to the sacrifice of Jesus for humanity in the Christian tradition. However, the reaction they have received from the general public as well as religious institutions shows how much is invested in Jesus’ masculinity. When that masculinity is substituted for femininity, people have highly adverse responses. The threat that is also posed by these symbols is their blatant female sexuality. The author posits that this is simply because all female sexuality has been removed from venerable female figures in the Christian tradition, such as Mary. The male Jesus on the cross is not sexualized perhaps because of the constant use of this symbol for centuries in art – it is possible that the viewer and the world in general are conditioned to view him as gendered, but not sexual.
Eschrich, Joey. “’Behold the Man!’: Constructing the Masculinity of Jesus of Nazareth in Mainstream American Film, 1961-2004.” Men and Masculinities 14, no. 5 (May 2011): 520-541. Accessed November 29, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1097184X11409361.
This is a discussion of Jesus is portrayed in contemporary (post World War II) films of which he is the primary subject. This article presents a masculine portrayal of Jesus, who asserts his masculinity through binary interactions with other characters. Feminine foils for Jesus include Mary Magdalene, Caiaphas, and Satan. Mary Magdalene is shown as the converted prostitute, who is the image of feminine sexuality and temptation. Jesus, being a paragon of self-control, resists this temptation and instead persuades her to shed her previous life of sin. Caiaphas also loses his emotional control, namely after the death of Christ. This feminine display of tears shows his subordination to Jesus, the masculine ideal. Satan is, at times, even played by a woman. Again temptation by Satan mimics the Fall of Man, while Jesus has strength to resist. While Jesus is generally played by a white male, often antagonists such as Caiaphas are more obviously ethnic. This casting mimics a power structure that places whites above all other ethnicities, according to the author. The death of Jesus then heralds the demise of his feminine, ethnic foes.
Fish, Thomas. “Demanding the Divine: Terrence McNally’s Gay Passion Play CORPUS CHRISTI.” Ecumenica 2, no. 2 (Fall 2009): 29-40.
Terrence McNally’s play Corpus Christi was met with an extreme amount of hostility from conservative religious organizations, as it depicted a gay Christ figure with gay apostles. Though this play did not arguably otherwise have any radical messages about the nature of Jesus’ life, just the portrayal of gay characters incited widespread criticism. The publicity about a gay Jesus play nearly overshadowed the plot of the actual play itself. The reaction of the public to this casting of Jesus is telling concerning the ideas that many already hold about Jesus’ gender and sexuality. Though this Christ is firmly committed to a gay identity in the play, he does not truly act upon this orientation in any real sexual way. The backlash from the public shows how just the identification of Christ with homosexuality (and identification of homosexuality as less than masculine) indicates that Christians are highly committed to a masculine Jesus. This gendering even persists although Jesus is painted as a non-sexual person.
Gilmour, Peter. “Text and Context: The Passion of the Christ and Other Jesus Films.” Religious Education 100, no.3 (Summer 2005): 311-325.
In this article, the author presents several lenses through which to critique Jesus films like Mel Gibson’s 2004 film The Passion of the Christ (though specifically focusing on this one in particular). The author dissects the movie in terms of its narrative theology and in the context of other Jesus films throughout the years. Gibson’s Passion is based upon both scriptural and non-scriptural sources of the life, death, and resurrection of the Christ. In the director’s interpretation, Jesus of Nazareth is more divine than human. The author indicates this as a flaw in the narrative theology of Gibson’s film. In relation to other Jesus films, the story is presented with an overwhelming emphasis on the violence of Jesus’ torture and execution. This, according to Gilmour, makes it too difficult for the audience to form a strong connection with the film. Though scholarly dissection of the work is important in its placement in religious education systems, Gilmour asserts that the film’s impact on the contemporary audience is for the public to decide – as Jesus is a figure that belongs to the public.
Gilmour, Peter. “The Film Son of Man: An Artistic Revelation of Jesus the Christ.” The Journal of Adult Theological Education 6, no. 2 (2009): 153-163.
Peter Gilmour dissects the 2006 film Son of Man. This film, set in South Africa, and shot with an entirely black cast, depicts Jesus in a somewhat similar but somewhat different way than other Jesus films. This film, set in the contemporary era, focuses on a non-violent yet revolutionary portrayal of Jesus. This Jesus, while having the power to perform miracles and captivate an audience, is more peaceful than the Jesus of Gibson’s Passion of the Christ, according to the author. There is no specific focus on retribution, and instead those who follow are offered reconciliation in their conversion. This portrait of Jesus also challenges the common portrayal of Jesus as reinforcing a white, middle-class norm for Christianity. This Jesus is one who transgresses norms of power and control found even in the contemporary context that has become accustomed to his traditional message.
Hark, Ina Rae. “Tortured Masculinity: Gendering Jesus in The Robe.” Quarterly Review of Film and Video 18, no. 2 (June 2009): 117-128. Accessed November 29, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10509200109361518.
The author believes that representations of Jesus’ gender in film have not conformed to a masculine archetype that has pervaded Hollywood in the contemporary era. The film The Robe specifically seems to obscure Jesus’ gender. In this movie, Jesus’ gender role is constantly in flux, at times playing the role of a woman, at times that of a man. This Jesus does not have the usual trappings of Hollywood masculinity – tanned, strong arms, physical presence. However, Christ is still a patriarchal figure. There are some vestiges of masculinity that pervade his character, though they are not a traditionally American version of masculinity.
Maddox, Kristy. “Playing the Victim: Violence, Suffering, and Feminine Submission in The Passion of the Christ.” Journal of Media and Religion 7 (2008): 150-169.
Maddox argues a fairly unconventional point in interpreting Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ film (2004). She posits that Jesus’ conduct in the film is feminine, as he submits to the Roman authorities and is subjected to horrific torture because of it. The overt violence in the film is central in demonstrating the submissiveness of Christ. Because the violence is so intense, it throws into greater relief the suffering of Jesus. As he suffers more, he endures more. Therefore, his lack of rebellion against the gruesome physical torture genders him feminine. Though he could have tried to escape something so terrible, he instead takes it. The graphic nature of the violence also makes the viewer feel a greater connection to the subject of the torture, Jesus. As his torture becomes more real and more painful, so does the audience’s. This also perpetuates the ideal of the follower becoming submissive as a result of Jesus’ suffering. It makes the suffering a physical experience for the audience also, and as such, it is intended to instill submission and awe.
Morgan, David. “The Masculinity of Jesus in Popular Religious Art.” In Men’s Bodies, Men’s Gods: Male Identity in a (Post-) Christian Culture, edited by Bjorn Krondorfer, 251-266. New York: New York University Press, 1996.
In this chapter, Morgan examines how popular religious art such as Warner Sallman’s portrayals of Jesus have been interpreted. One of Sallman’s more famous renditions of Jesus of Nazareth is the “Head of Christ,” which has been widely disseminated in the United States. This Jesus has been both admired for being a strong, masculine figure, and criticized for being too feminine. The author probes these opinions, as to why they might be interpreted in either light. It seems that the bias of the viewer tends to shape interpretation, so that things such as homophobia may skew a person’s conception of an art work.
Price, Stephen. “Beholding Bloody Sacrifice in The Passion of the Christ.” Film Quarterly 59, no. 4 (Summer 2006): 11-22.
Mel Gibson’s film The Passion of the Christ (2004) is mostly devoted to recreating Jesus of Nazareth’s torture and death by crucifixion. The movie contains several scenes, one extremely lengthy, of explicitly violent torture. The author argues that this excessive violence and cinematic ‘realism’ are used to amplify the message of the Christ’s suffering. In doing this, Jesus, who masters the pain and his torturers, endures in a stoic and masculine manner. His behavior while enduring the physical pain displays his self-control and superiority. In using shocking amounts of violence, Gibson not only engages Christian audiences in ‘realism’, but also displays Jesus as the prototype of masculinity.
Prothero, Stephen. American Jesus: How the Son of God Became a National Icon. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2003.
Prothero documents how Jesus came to be a figure in popular culture in the United States. Particularly of interest to this project is how the Jesus image came to be part of popular culture and how cultural values have shaped the image of Christ. The “Jesus freaks” were a group of people who were part of the counter-culture movement, while also being devoted to Christianity. These people’s context of counter-culture informed their representations of Christ, and as such, they created art that was appealing to a wider audience. These creations led the way for much of the popular Jesus art now – whether it be blockbuster films, billboards, or bumper stickers. This also shows how a lens of culture informs how Jesus is portrayed. In American culture, the prototype of masculinity – stoic and strong – has been applied to Christ in many popular art forms.
Samson, Judith. “Reading Images of Christ: Masculinity and Homosexuality as Sites of Struggle in Popular Religious Images of Jesus.” Religion and Gender 2, no. 2 (2012): 280-304.
The Sacred Heart of Jesus is a very popular image that depicts a gentle Christ with his heart exposed. This image has been the subject of a surprising amount of controversy, as many people see this Jesus as being too sensitive and feminine. These interpretations have also given way to interpreting this as a homosexual Christ. While this was not the intention of the artist, this meaning has been gleaned due to the context in which it is being viewed. The author suggests that this image is more controversial now than those made two centuries ago due to a solidifying of boundaries between friends/partners and masculine/feminine in the context of Jesus art. This also may be due to biases and fears on the part of the viewer. Samson explains that audiences fear seeing what they may fear within themselves – so noticing a certain homoeroticism may display repressed homosexuality and homophobia in fundamentalist audiences. Also, internalized gender roles and expectations may lead to the objections to a deficit of masculinity within portrayals of Christ.